Chapter 2: Getting Grammar Straight

Chapter 1 : Writing Well For Business

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Chapter 2: Getting Grammar Straight 

Some Grammar and Punctuations Rules

agreement

Pronouns must agree with the word they refer to in person, number, and gender. This is known as pronoun- antecedent agreement.

Incorrect: Everyone wanted to cash in their stock options.

Correct: Everyone wanted to cash in his or her stock options.

(Everyone is singular; therefore, the pronouns that refer to it must be singular as well.)

Similarly, verbs must agree with the subject of the sentence. (If the subject is singular, the verb must be singular; if the subject is plural, the verb must be plural.) This is known as subject-verb agreement. Do not fall into the trap of making the verb agree with the noun closest to it if that noun is not the subject.

Incorrect: A portion of our efforts are devoted to marketing.

Correct: A portion of our efforts is devoted to marketing. (Portion, not efforts, which is the object of the prepositional phrase beginning with of, is the subject of the sentence. Portion is singular, so the verb must be singular.) 

See also subject/verb agreement. 

an

Use the article an when the word that follows starts with a vowel sound. Pay attention not to whether the first letter is actually a vowel or consonant, but what it sounds like: 

an option an hourly wage But: a used book (because the u sounds like a y) 

and

And can be used to join words, phrases, and clauses.

To join words: He is a pompous and arrogant man. To join phrases: We look for employees with outgoing personalities, the ability to solve problems quickly, and experience in the service industry.
To join clauses: I like to dance, he likes to cook, and she likes to paint.

When using and to join two independent clauses, make sure the two clauses are equal in importance. Do not use and simply to tack on information at the end of a sentence or if one idea is dependent on another. (In the latter case, use a more specific word, such as because or so.) 

Not good: The shareholders’ meeting was in Houston, 
Texas, and many people attended. Better: The shareholders’ meeting, which many people attended, was in Houston, Texas.
Better: The shareholders’ meeting was in Houston, Texas. Many people attended.
Not good: His plane was late, and he missed the meeting. Better: His plane was late, so he missed the meeting.

apostrophe (’)

Use an apostrophe: 

- When indicating possession: a person’s signature, people’s signatures; the boy’s toy, the boys’ toys. 

When a singular common noun ends in s, add an ’s (princess’s, boss’s) unless the word that follows also begins with s (the boss’ son). For singular proper names ending in s, use an apostrophe only (Paris’ food, Jesus’ example). 

For compound words, add apostrophe or ’s to the word closest to the object possessed (the vice president’s opinion). 

- When indicating omitted letters or numerals: can’t, ’90s.
When an apostrophe appears in front of a number, it should face this way: ’

Do not use an apostrophe:
- When forming the plural of numbers or decades: 1870s, 1990s; 20s, 30s, 40s, etc.

- When forming the plural of letters or abbreviations: Ds, Fs, VIPs.

but, used at the beginning of a sentence

Contrary to popular belief, it is acceptable to use but at the beginning of a sentence. However, as with any other sentence formation, be careful not to overuse.

capitalization

Capitalize the first word of a sentence. This rule holds true when a sentence appears within a sentence (quoted material) or when a complete sentence follows a colon.

I couldn’t believe it when she said, “Take the rest of the day off.” 

Later, I found out why she gave us a vacation day: She didn’t want us around while she was firing people. 

Capitalize titles only when they precede a person’s specific name:

We heard President Bush speak. We heard the president speak. 

Capitalize the official names of governments, companies, and organizations. Do not capitalize common nouns such as division, committee, manager, department, and director. However, it’s better to follow the conventions of your company and overcapitalize than to be a stickler about this.

Capitalize the trademarked names of products, but not the products themselves.

Band-Aid, bandage Kleenex, tissue Xerox, photocopy 

Capitalize the words north, south, east, and west only when they designate a well-known region (the Midwest, Southern California). Do not capitalize them when they indicate direction. (The storm is moving north.) Do not capitalize seasons of the year: spring, autumn, winter, summer.

Capitalize titles of books, articles, plays, and films. Do not capitalize articles, conjunctions, or short prepositions in titles (A Man for All Seasons) unless they begin or end the title (In the Bedroom). Capitalize prepositions that contain more than four letters (A River Runs Through It). 

colon (:)

Use a colon: 

- To introduce a list of items. (This report is missing several sections: a table of contents, an introduction, and a conclusion.) 

- To introduce an explanation. (I’m not sure I agree with his conclusion: His logic seems flawed.) 

- To heighten the impact of the word or words that follow. 

(The cause of her illness was simple: malnutrition.) 

- After the salutation of a business letter. (Dear Mr. Smith:) 

- To separate elements of time (hours and minutes, minutes and seconds). (The meeting starts at 3:30. Her official time for the race was 6:02:27.) 

Do not place a colon between a verb and its objects or between a preposition and its objects.

• Incorrect: Please address the letter to: the client, the CEO, and the lawyers. Correct: Please address the letter to the client, the CEO, and the lawyers.
• Incorrect: Our strongest departments are: accounting, marketing, and human resources.
• Correct: Our strongest departments are accounting, marketing, and human resources.

See also quotation marks for placement with quotes.

comma (,) 

Place a comma: 

- Between two or more adjectives that modify a noun.

A dark, conservative suit is best for a job interview. 

- Between items in a series. The comma before the and or or in a series is now considered optional, but I include it to avoid confusion. Whether or not you choose to include this serial comma, be consistent throughout your document.

The flag is red, white, and blue. 

- To set off clauses that would not change the meaning of their subject if they were left out (“nonessential clauses”). If the words are essential to the meaning of the subject, do not enclose them in commas.

The conference room, which is comfortable but elegant, can hold 30 people. 

- Before a conjunction separating two independent clauses. However, if the clauses are extremely short, no comma is necessary.

She writes the documents within three to four weeks, and I edit them within a few days. 
She writes and I edit. 

- To separate a direct quote from the rest of the sentence.

“This report is pathetic,” he yelled. 

- Between parts of dates and place names.

The agreement was signed on November 6, 2002, but didn’t take effect until a month later.
She will retire to Palm Beach, Florida, when she turns 70. 

- Between names and titles or degrees that follow.

Thomas Matthews, Jr. 
Angela Adams, M.D. 

See also quotation marks for placement with quotes.

comma splice

Do not connect two individual sentences (known as independent clauses), each with its own subject and verb, by a comma. Instead, separate them with a semicolon or a period. If the clauses are short, you can also join them with a conjunction.

Incorrect: Yesterday’s meeting was there, today’s meeting is here.

Correct: Yesterday’s meeting was there; today’s meeting is here.

Correct: Yesterday’s meeting was there. Today’s meeting is here.

Correct: Yesterday’s meeting was there, while today’s meeting is here.

compound adjective

See hyphen.

dangling modifiers

Modifiers are words or phrases that define or alter the meaning of something. Modifiers are dangling when they don’t modify the subject of the sentence.

Incorrect: Believing the product to be faulty, it was recalled. (Who believes the product to be faulty?)

Correct: Believing the product to be faulty, the company recalled it. (The company believes the product to be faulty.) 

dash ( – )

The dash is used to interrupt or highlight an idea. (My father – an accomplished golfer in his own right – never beat my mother in golf.) Used most often in informal contexts, the dash should be used sparingly in business writing.

If you must use a dash and can’t create one with the “function” option on your computer, use two hyphens with a space on either side ( -- ).

either/or, neither/nor

Either goes with or; neither goes with nor.

Correct: Neither the radio nor the television is working. Correct: I wish either the radio or the television were working.

Incorrect: Neither the radio or the television is working.

ellipses ( … )

Ellipses indicate that a word, phrase, sentence, or paragraph has been omitted. They are usually used in quoted material. Ellipses can appear at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence.

The correct way to format ellipses is to use three dots with a space on either side. When deleted words come at the end of a sentence, use a fourth dot as the period.

Do not use ellipses for any other reason than to show omission.

exclamation point (!)

The exclamation point is used to show extreme emotion. Use only rarely; a period will almost always suffice.

fragment

A sentence is a group of words with a subject and a verb that form a complete thought. A sentence fragment is a group of words that does not form a complete thought.

Incorrect: The stenographer typed. As fast as he could. (As fast as he could is not a complete sentence.)

Correct: The stenographer typed as fast as he could.

Eliminate fragments from your writing.

hyphen (-)

Use hyphens when you combine two or more words to form an adjective or to create a new word or modifying phrase. Here’s a good rule of thumb: If the reader might otherwise be confused, use a hyphen.

carry-on luggage

day-by-day propositions

the first-time traveler

the first time-traveler

If one of the words in a modifier is an adverb ending in -ly, do not use a hyphen.

She was fancily dressed.

When a series of modifiers all end with the same word, the word needs only to appear at the end of the series.

We manufacture small-, large- and mid-size cars.

italics

Italicize names of books, newspapers, magazines, periodicals, movies, and TV shows. Use quotation marks for titles of chapters, articles, reports, poems, songs, and musical works. Exception: The titles of long musical works and poems (for example, Paradise Lost) are italicized.

Italics may also be used to show emphasis. Use them sparingly for this purpose, however.

parallel construction

Parallel construction means beginning each item in a list with the same part of speech (the art of advertising, the science of accounting, and the mystery of marketing – each item begins with a noun). This helps alert readers to the similarities or connections between things. If you introduce words or phrases with a preposition, either include the preposition only with the first item or with each of the items.

Parallel: This book is for investors, managers, salespeople, and executives.

Parallel: This book is for investors, for managers, for salespeople, and for executives.

Not parallel: This book is for investors, managers, salespeople, and for executives.

parentheses ( )

Parentheses are traditionally used to enclose explanatory material that’s tangential to the main idea. They’re also used to introduce an acronym or an abbreviation.

Try to limit the first use of parentheses: When you’re tempted to use parentheses to enclose a tangential idea, consider how important the idea is. If it’s important enough to be in the document, it probably doesn’t belong in parentheses. If it’s not important, it probably doesn’t belong in the document.

Punctuation and parentheses: Put a period inside the closing parenthesis if the statement inside is a complete sentence. Otherwise, punctuate the sentence as if the parentheses did not exist.

Ice cream is my favorite dessert. (And chocolate is my favorite flavor.)

Ice cream is my favorite dessert (especially chocolate).

Note: Do not follow the written version of a number with a numeral in parentheses.

Incorrect: Enclosed are three (3) documents.

period (.)

Use a period:

• At the end of a sentence.
• In certain abbreviations: a.m., p.m., B.A., M.A., Ph.D., M.D., Jr. Esq., Ms., Mrs., Mr., Bros., Co., Inc., U.S.A. If an abbreviation ends a sentence, no additional period is needed.

  At age 45, she went back to school to earn her Ph.D.

See also quotation marks for placement with quotes.

person

See point of view.

point of view

When writing a document, adopt a point of view: I or we (first person); you (second person); or he, she, it, and they (third person). In documents on company stationery, we usually indicates the view of the company, while I indicates personal opinion.

Any of the three points of view is acceptable; just make sure not to shift person in the middle of a sentence or document.

prepositions

Are prepositions something you can end a sentence with? Yes. Most grammarians now disregard the old rule about not ending sentences with prepositions. It’s better to end a sentence with a preposition than write an awkward, stilted statement.

Awkward: This is the manual with which the computer came.

Better: This is the manual the computer came with.

pronouns

Pronouns are substitutes for nouns (or other pronouns). The key in understanding how to use pronouns is knowing whether they are subjects or objects in their sentences. When the pronoun is part of the subject of a sentence, use a nominative pronoun (see below). When the pronoun is part of the object in a sentence – the thing acted upon – or the object of a preposition, use the objective case.

Nominative	Objective
I/we	Me/us
You	You
He/she/it	Him/her/it
They	Them

A pronoun that follows a preposition is the object of that preposition and should therefore be in the objective case.

Correct: It was I who wrote the report.

Incorrect: It was me who wrote the report.

Correct: Let’s keep this between you and me.

Incorrect: Let’s keep this between you and I.

Another point about pronouns: Be clear about which noun they’re replacing.

Ambiguous: After Rick spoke to the man, he felt better.

(Who felt better? Rick or the man?)

Clear: After speaking with the man, Rick felt better.

Clear: After Rick spoke with the man, Rick felt better. (It’s better to repeat the noun and sound repetitive than to be unclear.)

One way to reduce confusion is to place the pronoun as close as possible to the noun it is replacing.

quotation marks (“ ”)

The main function of quotation marks is to signal the beginning and end of a direct quote: “Tell my husband I’ll call him back,” the CEO said to her secretary. Also use quotation marks:

• Around the titles of articles, stories, speeches, and chapters and other parts of a larger printed work
• When introducing a new term (We’re calling our new toy a “zigley.”)

Punctuating with quotation marks: Many people find the question of whether to place periods and other punctuation inside or outside quotation marks confusing. The rules are simple:

• Periods and commas go inside the final quotation mark.
• Semicolons and colons go outside the final quotation mark.
• Question marks and exclamation points go inside the final quotation mark when they are part of the quoted material; they go outside the quotation mark when they are not.

  Incorrect: After the sales pitch he asked, “So how much will this really cost us”?

  Correct: After the sales pitch he asked, “So how much will this really cost us?”

Quotes within quotes: Use single quotation marks to note quotations within quotations.

The manager said, “During our presentation, I overheard the client say, ‘I’m impressed.’”

Do not use quotation marks to indicate that you are being sarcastic or using a word loosely.

Incorrect: She thought the top made her look “with it.”

run-on sentence

A run-on sentence is two or more sentences without punctuation separating them.

The economy is good however the market for our product is poor.

Ways to fix run-on sentences include:

• Dividing them into separate sentences.

  The economy is good. However, the market for our product is poor.

• Joining them with a comma and a conjunction.

  The economy is good, but the market for our product is poor.

• Joining them with a semicolon.

  The economy is good; however, the market for our product is poor.

semicolon (;)

The semicolon has two main uses:

• To connect two closely related sentences that are not joined by a conjunction.

  Red is my favorite color; half my wardrobe is red.

• To separate items on a list when the items are long, complex, or have commas within them.

  I will need the following: two highlighters, one yellow and one green; three pencils; poster board, preferably the thick kind; and a large roll of masking tape.

See also quotation marks for placement with quotes.

serial comma

The comma before the and or or in a series is now considered optional, but I include it to avoid confusion. Whether or not you choose to include this serial comma, be consistent throughout your document. See also comma.

split infinitive

Splitting infinitives is no longer a cardinal sin of grammar. Splitting an infinitive is preferable to creating an awkward-sounding sentence or leaving the meaning unclear. Most sentences, however, will sound natural without splitting infinitives.

Unclear: It was difficult to understand actually what she was saying. (To actually understand, or what she was actually saying?)

Better: It was difficult to actually understand what she was saying.

Unnecessary split: To effectively communicate, you must be a competent writer.

Better: To communicate effectively, you must be a competent writer.

subject/verb agreement

Singular subjects take singular verbs. Plural subjects take plural verbs.

This rule seems simple enough. Nonetheless, placing a singular noun with a plural verb is a common grammar mistake. Part of the problem is that many singular nouns seem as if they are plural: Group, staff, board committee, and majority are singular (and take singular verbs), for example.

Incorrect: The staff are on vacation.

Correct: The staff is on vacation.

Other nouns that are singular but often used mistakenly with plural verb forms include each, everybody, everyone, anybody, somebody, someone, no one, either, and neither. Many of these words incorporate the word one or body, which serves as a reminder that they refer to one person or thing.

Another common mistake is matching the verb with the word closest to it, rather than the actual subject of the sentence.

Incorrect: The group of accountants are meeting at the hotel. (Of accountants is a prepositional phrase; group, a singular noun, is the subject of the sentence.)

Correct: The group is meeting at the hotel.

Incorrect: The majority [of people] are going to vote for a pay raise.

Correct: The majority is going to vote for a pay raise. (If you mentally delete the prepositional phrase of people, it’s easier to see that the subject of the sentence is majority, which is singular.)

If two singular parts of a subject are connected by and, the subject is plural and takes a plural verb.

Eating and drinking are two of my favorite pastimes.

When two singular subjects are joined by or, the verb is singular.

Bob or Joyce is taking pledges today.

When one part of a subject is singular and the other is plural and they are joined by or, the verb should agree with the part of the subject closest to it.

John or his friends are going to the mall.

Either John’s friends or John is representing the group.

When subjects connected by and are commonly thought of as one item, the verb is singular.

Bacon and eggs is my favorite breakfast.

subjunctive

The phrase If I were you includes a subjunctive verb. Knowing the verb is subjunctive is not important, but it is important to know when to use was and when to use were.

Use were when an if clause states a situation that is impossible, extremely unlikely, or simply untrue. Use was in all other cases.

If I were you, I would make that phone call. (It is impossible for me to be you.)

If I was asked, I’d go with you. (It is possible that I’ll be asked.)

titles

Italicize names of books, newspapers, magazines, periodicals, movies, and TV shows. Use quotation marks for titles of chapters, articles, reports, poems, songs, and musical works. Do not capitalize articles and conjunctions of three words or less (The Times of London).

Capitalize titles only when they precede a person’s name.

President Bush’s address

the president’s address  

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Chapter 3: Dealing With Questions of Style

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Business Grammar, Style & Usage: A Desk Reference for Articulate & Polished Business Writing & Speaking	by Alicia Abell	96 Kb	file HTML (chm)	download